Which prehistoric period did horticulture begin
Artifacts in the mound were more diverse than those in the surrounding village, and food remains from the mound consisted primarily of deer bones. This indicates that special rituals and feasts took place on top of the mound. The site was a major Middle Woodland ceremonial center of at least 12 conical and platform mounds, including a geometric earthwork. Log-covered tombs with shell beads, copper, and engraved turtle-shell rattles were found under some of the mounds.
Populations increased and settlements filled up the landscape, spreading northward up small streams. People continued to live in base camps, but their increased numbers led to competition for resources and an increase in warfare.
By this time, the use of the bow and arrow had spread from cultures to the west and fulfilled the need for a more accurate hunting tool and weapon. The bow and arrow made hunting less of a communal activity than it had been in the past, and individual families became more self-sufficient.
People began making stone projectile points that were shorter, thinner, and more triangular so they could be attached to arrows. Middle Woodland people still hunted, fished, and gathered wild foods, but they also spent increasing amounts of time tending their plots of maize, squash, and other plants. Because they now grew food that could be stored, people developed large, rounded jars used for storage of surplus food. They continued to use sand, grog, limestone, or grit temper in their pottery.
Late Woodland Projectile Points As the Hopewell culture declined, mortuary practices became more variable and simplified. Small amounts of exotic items still occur in Late Woodland graves, but they seem not to have been part of an elaborate mortuary complex. The decline in ceremonialism may indicate the development of a new form of religion that focused on a reverence for the ancestors of certain lineages. There is evidence that many small groups occasionally gathered together to build mounds and maintain long-range ties.
Likely as a result of these regional gatherings, pottery from different places developed widespread similarities in form and decoration. The mound centers expanded their functions from places for burial to places where civic and ceremonial functions occurred. The combined developments of surplus food, special lineages, and mound centers marked changes in society that were much different from how people had lived up to that point.
And these changes set the stage for the developments that would take place in the Mississippian period. Additional Resources Bense, Judith. San Diego: Academic Press, Hudson, Charles.
The Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Knight, Vernon J. Walthall, John. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, Zschomler, Kristen, and Ian W. There was an economic shift to maize agriculture, rescheduling other subsistence activities toward this end. Small Late Woodland villages represent substantial and increasingly self-sufficient groups between A.
However, the material remains of the period are unspectacular and show a general sameness throughout the northeastern U. Most sites are small rockshelter campsites along major river valleys to the south and east of Cleveland. Because of preservation factors, ceramics and projectile points are all that are normally recovered. The early Late Woodland corresponds to a period of mild climate.
Archeological sites show few differences in the size or composition of the groups that occupied them, although they seem to have been occupied at different seasons for different purposes. None are permanent agricultural villages, although corn and squash are present at several. Most sites occupied from late summer to early spring sat on steep ridges overlooking valleys of the Cuyahoga, Rocky, or Lower Chagrin rivers.
Small, circular houses contained 1 or 2 fire hearths and a few shallow storage pits. Most projectile points were notched, but a few were triangular, and there were a variety of tools and ornaments made of antler and bone. During springtime, populations lived in large plant-collecting and fishing camps located along the lakeshore ridges, shores of small ponds and bogs, or headwaters of creeks and tributaries to major rivers. In evidence of a small, early, late-woodland occupation or campsite was found on the buried sands underlying the area where Jacobs Field now stands.
Between A. Similar ceramic and lithic artifacts have been encountered at relatively large agricultural sites on the second terraces of the Cuyahoga, Chagrin, and Grand rivers.
Along the smaller tributaries of these rivers, well into the uplands, there were a number of very small reoccupied fall and winter hunting camps, some in rockshelters. There were even smaller, more seasonally limited single-family activities, possibly collecting tubers and greens during the early spring, and a few sites of differing sizes occupied during the fall.
Sites on sand ridges cut by streams entering Lake Erie were seasonally reoccupied as small fishing camps. Throughout this period, the emphasis on burial ceremony declined. Most individuals were placed in simple shallow graves located within the campsite or village where they died. Grave goods are rare, and those existing were mundane personal tools, utensils, or ornaments. In eastern North America from A. While this did not spread into the Great Lakes area, its influences can be seen in Cleveland after A.
In southern Ohio, this Woodland population is called Ft. Ancient, and where Ft. Ancient survived it represented some portion of the Shawnee. In New York and Ontario, populations similar to those in northeast Ohio diverged into the various Iroquoian tribes encountered by the French.
From A. From spring through fall, small villages, probably occupied by 3 or 4 related families, located along major rivers. During winters, small family hunting groups camped at springs or in upland rockshelters.
Few tools of any type are found at most sites, except for flake scrapers, with a few small triangular projectile points and stemmed knives. The larger villages on low terraces near secondary stream mouths were occupied from summer into the fall.
Small autumn and winter fishing stations and hunting camps were on the edge of the lake plain, occasionally associated with group cemeteries.
As summer villages grew larger and were occupied longer, society became more dependent on agriculture, and the specialized hunting and fishing campsites became smaller and more scattered. By ca. Domestic architecture changed, from randomly scattered, simple circular to oval "wigwam" structures about sq. Throughout the earlier Whittlesey Tradition, simple burial rites were maintained. Some indication of a greater social hierarchy appear after A. Multiple burial and occasional reburial of family members in larger graves at specific village sites probably represents the social recognition of family- or lineage-controlled territory.
Although grave goods are mundane, some groups were accompanied by more ornamental goods than were others. By the later Whittlesey Tradition, nearly all burials were single graves located in large cemeteries close to, but not within, the large permanent villages. Grave goods are quite rare. The final Whittlesey phase began ca. There is clear evidence for year-round occupation in large fortified villages growing maize, beans, and squash with dense rows of multifamily "long houses," and at one site, a circular semisubterranean ceremonial pit house used as a sweat lodge.
Recently investigated village sites were located at about 8-mi. Fields containing corn, beans, and squash surrounded the villages.
The villages were moved approximately every decade as the soil fertility was depleted. Burials were scattered throughout the village, although most frequently situated between the outer ring of houses and the stockade. The stockades suggest that there may have been feuding between villages, but villages were also probably being threatened by outsiders. Based on their houses and ethnographic evidence, they may have spoken an Algonquian language.
Their ancestors had probably lived in the valley for hundreds or even thousands of years. In the Delaware River Valley, the pattern of small homesteads and hamlets continued until European contact. Unlike other regions, there is no evidence for large, stockaded villages.
The Late Woodland complexes of this region are identified by pottery styles termed Minguannan and Overpeck.
We assume that they represent slightly different cultural groups. Although agriculture was practiced, it appears to have been less important than in regions to the west. It is notable that farming requires more effort than gathering wild foods. In the Delaware Valley, it is possible that wild plant foods were abundant relative to population density and there may have been little reason to make the change to farming.
The Minguannan were ancestral to the Delaware, who occupied the region at the time of European contact. Based on historical accounts, the Delaware were matrilineal, and their houses were occupied by a group of sisters, female cousins, and their families.
They had different house forms during different times of the year. Multi-family longhouses, occupied during the winter, could be over feet long.
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